Publications

Below is a selected list of Charles Brainerd's publications. To access an article, click on the title, and you will be directed to the electronic journal where it is published (individual or institutional subscription required). If you encounter any difficulties accessing an article that you need for research purposes, please contact Professor Brainerd's administrative assistant. For a complete list of publications, please see Charles Brainerd's Curriculum Vitae.

Refereed journal articles

Brainerd, C. J., Bialer, D. M., Liu, X., & Chang, M., (in press). Developmental invariance in deep distortions. Psychology and Aging.
Brainerd, C. J., Chang, M., Liu, X., & Bialer, D. M. (in press). Memory framing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition.
Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., & Chang, M., (in press). Developmental change and invariance in verbatim and gist memory Cross-sectional and longitudinal applications of the dual-retrieval model. Psychology and Aging.
Brainerd, C. J., Chang, M., Liu, X., & Bialer, D. M. (in press). Memory framing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition.
Brainerd, C. J., Chang, M., Liu, X., & Bialer, D. M. (in press). Memory framing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition.
Chang, M., Johns, B. T., & Brainerd, C. J. (in press). True and false recognition in MINERVA2: A computational implementation of fuzzy-trace theory. Psychological Review.
Chang, M., & Brainerd, C. J. (in press). : Judgments of learning enhance elaborative rather than relational processing: Implications from phonologically related and phonological-semantic mediated pairs. Journal of Memory and Language.
Chang, M., Brainerd, C. J., Bialer, D. M., & Liu, X. (in press). How gist and association affect false memory: False recognition and gist rating norms. Behavior Research Methods.
Brainerd, C. J., Bialer, D. M., Chang, M., & Liu, X. (in press). Deep distortions in memory for everyday facts: Fact memory is illogical, too. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General.
Brainerd, C. J., Chang, M., Bialer, D. M., & Liu, X. (in press). From association to gist: Some critical tests. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition.
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2023). Theoretical explanations of developmental reversals in memory and reasoning. Developmental Review, 69, 101087.
Reyna, V. F., & Brainerd, C. J. (2023). Numeracy: Gist, literal thinking, and the value of nothing. Nature Reviews, 2, 421-439.
Chang, M., & Brainerd, C. J. (2024). Judgments of learning reactivity on iiem-specific and relational processing. Journal of Intelligence, 12(1), Number 4.
Chang, M., & Brainerd, C. J. (in press). The recognition effects of attribute ambiguity. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review.
Chang, M., & Brainerd, C. J. (in press). The font size effect depends on list relatedness. Memory & Cognition.
Chang, M., & Brainerd, C. J. (in press). Effects of Emotional Ambiguity and Emotional Intensity on True and False Memory. Memory & Cognition.
Brainerd, C. J., Liu, X., Bialer, D. M., & Chang, M. (in press). The big three: accuracy, organization, and retrieval effects of latent semantic attributes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General.
Brainerd, C. J., Bialer, D. M., & Chang, M. (in press). Memory effects of semantic attributes:
A method of controlling attribute contamination. Behavior Research Methods.
Brainerd, C. J., Chang, M., Bialer, D. M., & Liu, X. (2023). How does attribute ambiguity improve memory? Memory & Cognition, 51, 38-70.
Brainerd, C. J., Bialer, D. M., & Chang, M. (2022). A fundamental asymmetry in human memory: Old ≠ not-new and new ≠ not-old. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 48(12), 1850–1867.
Brainerd, C. J., Chang, M., & Bialer, D. M. (2022). Fuzzy-trace theory and false memory: Meta-analysis of conjoint recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 48(11), 1680–1697. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0001040.
Chang, M., & Brainerd, C. J. (in press). Changed-goal or cue-strengthening? Examining judgment of learning reactivity with the dual-retrieval model. Metacognition and Learning, 18 (1), 183-217.
Chang, M., & Brainerd, C. J. (2022). Association and dissociation between judgments of learning and memory: A Meta-analysis of the font size effect. Metacognition and Learning, 17(2), 443-476.
Chang, M., & Brainerd, C. J. (2022). Predicting conversion from mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer’s disease with multimodal latent factors. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 44 (4) , 316-335.
Brainerd, C. J. (2021). Deep memory distortions. Cognitive Psychology, 126, Article No. 101386.
Brainerd, C. J., Chang, M., Bialer, D. M., & Toglia, M. P. (2021). Semantic ambiguity and memory. Journal of Memory and Language., Article 104286.
Brainerd, C. J., Chang, M., & Bialer, D. M. (2021). Emotional ambiguity and memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General., 150, 1476-1499.
Chang, M., & Brainerd, C. J. (2021). Factor analyses of the ADNI neuropsychological battery: Developmental and diagnostic invariance. Neuropsychology, 35, 434-450.
Chang, M., & Brainerd, C. J. (2021). Semantic and phonological false memory: A review of theory and data. Journal of Memory and Language., 119, Article No. 104210.
Reyna, V. F., Brainerd, C. J., Chen, Z., & Bookbinder, S. H. (2021). Explaining risky choices with judgments: Framing, the zero effect, and the contextual relativity of gist. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 47, 037-1053.
Bialer, D. M., Reyna, V. F., & Brainerd, C. J. (2021). False memory: What are the effects, how does fuzzy-trace theory predict them, and how does this matter for eyewitness testimony? In Smith, A. M., Toglia, M. P., & Lampinen, J. M. (Eds.). Methods, Measures, and Theories in Forensic Facial-Recognition Tasks, London: Taylor & Francis.
Brainerd, C. J. (2020). Deep distortion. Memory, November.
Brainerd, C. J., Bailer, D. M., & Chang, M. (2020). Norming retrieval processes. Journal of Memory and Language, 115, Article No. 104143.
Brainerd, C. J., Chang, M., & Bialer, D. M. (2020). From association to gist. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 46, 2106-2127.
Chang, M., Brainerd, C. J., Toglia, M. P., & Schmidt, S. R. (2020). Norms for emotion-false memory lists. Behavior Research Methods, June.
Brainerd, C. J., Nakamura, K., & Murtaza, Y. (2020). Explaining complementarity in false memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 112, Article 104105.
Brainerd, C. J., Nakamura, K., Chang, M., & Bialer, D. M. (2019). Super-overdistribution. Journal of Memory and Language. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2019.104027
Brainerd, C. J., Nakamura, K., Chang, M., & Bialer, D. M. (2019). Verbatim editing: A general model of recollection rejection. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 45(10), 1776-1790. doi:10.1037/xlm0000684
Brainerd, C. J., Nakamura, K., & Lee, W.-F. A. (2019). Recollection is fast and slow. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 45(2), 302–319. doi: 10.1037/xlm0000588
Brainerd, C. J., & Bookbinder, S. H. (2019). The semantics of emotion in false memory. Emotion, 19(1), 146-159. doi:10.1037/emo0000431
Brainerd, C. J. (2018). The Emotional-Ambiguity Hypothesis: A Large-Scale Test. Psychological science, 29(10), 1706-1715. doi: 10.1177/0956797618780353
Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., & Holliday, R. E. (2018). Developmental reversals in false memory: Development is complementary, not compensatory. Developmental Psychology, 54, 1773–1784. doi: 10.1037/dev0000554
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2018). Complementarity in false memory illusions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 147(3), 305-327. doi: 10.1037/xge0000381
Brainerd, C. J., Nakamura, K., Reyna, V. F., & Holliday, R. E. (2017). Overdistribution illusions: Categorical judgments produce them, confidence ratings reduce them. "Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146"(1), 20-40. doi: 10.1037/xge0000242.
Reyna, V. F., Corbin, J. C., Weldon, R. B., & Brainerd, C. J. (2016). How fuzzy-trace theory predicts true and false memories for words, sentences, and narratives. "Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 5"(1), 1-9. doi: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2015.12.003.
Brainerd, C. J., Wang, Z., Reyna, V. F., & Nakamura, K. (2015). Episodic memory does not add up: Verbatim-gist superposition predicts violations of the additive law of probability. "Journal of Memory and Language, 84", 224-245. doi: 10.1015/j.jml.2015.06.006.
Corbin, J. C., Reyna, V. F., Weldon, R. B., & Brainerd, C. J. (2015). How reasoning, judgment, and decision making are colored by gist-based intuition: A fuzzy-trace theory approach. "Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 4"(4), 344-355. doi: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2015.09.001.
Brainerd, C. J., Holliday, R. E., Nakamura, K., & Reyna, V. F. (2014). Conjunction illusions and conjunction fallacies in episodic memory. "Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40"(6), 1610-1623. doi: 10.1037/xlm0000017.
Reyna, V. F., & Brainerd, C. B. (2014). Fuzzy universality of probability judgment. "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111"(48), 16984-16985. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1420118111.
Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., Gomes, C. F. A., Kenney, A. E., Gross, C. J., Taub, E. S., Spreng, R. N., & Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (2013). Dual-retrieval models and neurocognitive impairment. "Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition". Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0034057.
Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., Petersen, R. G., Smith, G. E., Kenney, A. E., Gross, C. J., Taub, E. S., Plassman, B. L., & Fisher, G. G. (2013). The apolipoprotein E genotype predicts longitudinal transitions to mild cognitive impairment but not to Alzheimer’s dementia: Findings from a nationally representative study. Neuropsychology, 27(1), 80-94.
Brainerd, C. J., Wang, Z., & Reyna, V. F. (2013). Superposition of episodic memories: Overdistribution and quantum models. "Topics in Cognitive Science", 5773-799. doi: 10.1111/tops.12039.
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2012). Reliability of children's testimony in the era of developmental reversals. "Developmental Review, 32", 224-267. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2012.06.008.
Brainerd, C. J., Aydin, C., Reyna, V. F. (2012). Development of dual-retrieval processes in recall: Learning, forgetting, and reminiscence.. "Journal of Memory and Language, 66"(4), 763-788. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2011.12.002.
Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., Holliday, R. E., & Nakamura, K. (2012). Overdistribution in source memory. "Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38"(2), 413-439. doi:10.1037/a0025645.
Brainerd, C.J., Reyna, V.F., & Zember, E. (2011). Theoretical and forensic implications of developmental studies of the DRM illusion. "Memory & Cognition, 39", 365-380. doi:10.3758/s13421-010-0043-2.
Brainerd, C.J., Reyna, V.F., Petersen, R.C., Smith, G.E. & Taub, E.S. (2011). Is the Apolipoprotein E genotype a biomarker for mild cognitive impairment? Findings from a nationally representative study. "Neuropsychology, 25"(6), 679-689. doi:10.1037/a0024483.
Holliday, R.E., Brainerd, C.J., & Reyna, V.F. (2011). Developmental reversals in false memory: Now you see them, now you don't!. "Developmental Psychology, 47"(2), 442-449. doi:10.1037/a0021058 .
Reyna, V.F., Brainerd, C.J. (2011). Dual processes in decision making and developmental neuroscience: A fuzzy-trace model. "Developmental Review, 31", 180-206. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2011.07.004 .
Brainerd, C. J. & Reyna, V.F. (2010). Recollective and Nonrecollective Recall. "Journal of Memory and Language, 63"(3), 425-445. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2010.05.002.
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F., Aydin, C. (2010). Remembering in contradictory minds: Disjunction fallacies in episodic memory.. "Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,36"(3), 711-735. doi:10.1037/a0018995.
Brainerd, C. J., Holliday, R. E., Reyna, V. F., Yang, Y., & Toglia, M. P. (2010). Developmental reversals in false memory: Effects of emotional valence and arousal.. "Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 107"(2), 137-154. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.04.013.
Marche, T.A., Brainerd, C.J., & Reyna, V.F. (2010). Distinguishing True From False Memories in Forensic Contexts: Can Phenomenology Tell Us What is Real?. "Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24"(8), 1168-1182. doi:10.1002/acp.1629 .
Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., & Howe, M. L. (2009). Trichotomous processes in early memory development, aging, and cognitive impairment: A Unified Theory. "Psychological Review, 116", 783-832. doi:10.1037/a0016963.
Odegard, T. N., Cooper, C. M., Lampinen, J. M., Reyna, V. F., & Brainerd, C. J. (2009). Children’s eyewitness memory for multiple real-life events. "Child Development, 80(6)", 1877-1890. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01373.x.
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2008). Episodic over-distribution: A signature effect of recollection without familiarity. "Journal of Memory and Language, 58", 765-786. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2007.08.006.
Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., & Ceci, S. J. (2008). Developmental reversals in false memory: A review of data and theory. "Psychological Bulletin, 134"(3), 343- 382. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.343.
Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., Ceci, S.J., & Holliday, R.E. (2008). Understanding developmental reversals in false memory: Reply to Ghetti (2008) and Howe (2008). "Psychological Bulletin, 134"(5), 773-777. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.343.
Brainerd, C. J., Stein, L. M., Silveira, R. A., Rohenkohl, G., & Reyna, V. F (2008). How does negative emotion cause false memories?. "Psychological Science, 19", 919-925. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02177.x.
Brainerd, C.J., Yang, Y., Reyna, V.F., Howe, M.L., & Mills, B.A. (2008). Semantic processing in "associative" false memory. "Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15"(6), 1035-1053. doi:10.3758/PBR.15.6.1035.
Holliday, R. E., Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2008). Recall of details never experienced: Effects of age, repetition, and semantic cues. "Cognitive Development, 23", 67-78. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.05.002.
Odegard, T. N., Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2008). Attention to global-gist processing eliminates age effects in false memories. "Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 99", 96-113. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2007.08.007.
Reyna, V. F., & Brainerd, C. J. (2008). Numeracy, ratio bias, and denominator neglect in judgments of risk and probability. "Learning and Individual Differences, 18"(1), 89-107. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.03.011.
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2007). Explaining developmental reversals in false memory. "Psychological Science, 18"(5), 442-448. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01919.x .
Reyna, V. F., & Brainerd, C. J. (2007). The importance of mathematics in health and human judgment: Numeracy, risk communication, and medical decision making. "Learning and Individual Differences, 17"(2), 147-159. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.03.010.
Brainerd, C. J., Forrest, T. J., Karibian, D., & Reyna, V. F. (2006). Development of the false-memory illusion. "Developmental Psychology, 42", 962-979. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.962.
Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., & Estrada, S. (2006). Recollection rejection of false narrative statements. "Memory, 14"(6), 672-691. doi:10.1080/09658210600648449.
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2004). Fuzzy-trace theory and memory development. "Developmental Review, 24", 396-439. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2004.08.005.
Brainerd, C. J., Holliday, R. E., & Reyna, V. F. (2004). Behavioral measurement of remembering phenomenologies: So simple a child can do it. "Child Development, 75", 505-522. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00689.x.
Brainerd, C. J., Payne, D. G., Wright, R., & Reyna, V. F. (2003). Phantom recall. "Journal of Memory and Language, 48", 445-467. doi:10.1016/S0749-596X(02)00501-6.
Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., Wright, R., & Mojardin, A. H. (2003). Recollection rejection: False-memory editing in children and adults. "Psychological Review, 110", 762-784. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.110.4.762.
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2002). Recollection rejection: How children edit their false memories. "Developmental Psychology, 38", 156-172. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.1.156.
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2002). Fuzzy-trace theory and false memory. "Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11", 164-168. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00192.
Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., & Forrest, T. J. (2002). Are young children susceptible to the false-memory illusion?. "Child Development, 73", 1363-1377. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00477.
Brainerd, C. J., Wright, R., Reyna, V. F., & Payne, D. G. (2002). Dual retrieval processes in free and associative recall. "Journal of Memory and Language, 46", 120-152. doi:10.1006/jmla.2001.2796.
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2001). Fuzzy-trace theory: Dual processes in memory, reasoning, and cognitive neuroscience. "Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 28", 49-100. doi:10.1016/S0065-2407(02)80062-3.
Brainerd, C. J., Wright, R., Reyna, V. F., & Mojardin, A.H. (2001). Conjoint recognition and phantom recollection. "Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27", 341-361. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.27.2.307.

Books

Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F (2005). The Science of False Memory. New York: Oxford University Press.

Book chapters

Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2015). Memory and knowledge in theories of episodic memory. In C. Roberto & I. Kawachi (Eds.), "Behavioral economics and public health" (pp.101-132). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2013). Dual processes in memory development: Fuzzy-trace theory. In P. J. Bauer & R. Fivush (Eds.), "The Wiley handbook on the development of children's memory" (pp. 480-512). New York: Wiley & Sons..
Corbin, J.C., Wilhelms, E.A., Reyna, V.F., & Brainerd, C.J. (2013). Theory and Processes in Memory Development: Childhood to Adolescence. In R. Holliday & T. Marche (Eds.), "Child Forensic Psychology" (pp. 65-94). Basingstroke, UK: Palgrave Macmillin.
Brainerd, C.B., Reyna, V.F., & Holliday, R.E. (2012). Development of recollection: A fuzzy-trace theory perspective. In S. Ghetti & P.J. Bauer (Eds.), "Origins and development of recollection" (pp. 101-143). New York: Oxford University Press.
Holliday, R.E., Humphries, J.E., Brainerd, C.J., & Reyna, V.R. (2012). Interviewing vulnerable witnesses. In G. Davies & A. Beech, "Forensic psychology: Crime, justice, law, interventions, 2nd Ed". (pp. 115-133). Chichester, West Sussex ; Hoboken, N.J. : John Wiley & Sons.
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2008). Developmental trends in spontaneous false memory, with implications for the law. In M. L. Howe, G. Goodman, & D. Cicchetti (Eds.), "Stress, trauma, and children’s memory development: Neurobiological, cognitive, clinical, and legal perspectives" (pp. 302-362). New York: Oxford University Press.
Reyna, V. F., Mills, B. A., Estrada, S. M., & Brainerd, C. J. (2006). False memory in children: Data, theory, and legal implications. In M. P. Toglia, J. D. Read, D. F. Ross, & R. C. L. Lindsay (Eds.), "The handbook of eyewitness psychology: Memory for events" (pp. 473-510). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Reyna, V. F., Adam, M. B., Poirier, K., LeCroy, C. W., & Brainerd, C. J. (2005). Risky decision-making in childhood and adolescence: A fuzzy-trace theory approach. In J. Jacobs & P. Klaczynski (Eds.), "The development of children's and adolescents' judgment and decision-making" (pp. 77-106) Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Wolfe C. R., Reyna, V. F., & Brainerd, C. J. (2005). Fuzzy-trace theory: Implications for transfer in teaching and learning. In J. P. Mestre (Ed.), "Transfer of learning from a modern multidisciplinary perspective" (pp. 53-88). Greenwich,CT: Information Age Publishing.
Reyna, V. F., Lloyd, F. J., & Brainerd, C. J. (2003). Memory, development, and rationality: An integrative theory of judgment and decision-making. In S. Schneider & J. Shanteau (Eds.), "Emerging perspectives on judgment and decision research" (pp. 201-245). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Reyna, V. F., Brainerd, C. J., Effken, J., Bootzin, R., & Lloyd, F. J. (2001). The psychology of human computer mismatches. In C. Wolfe (Ed.), "Learning and teaching on the world wide web" (pp. 23-44). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Brainerd, C.J., Reyna, V. F., & Poole, D. A (2000). Fuzzy-trace theory and false memory: Memory theory in the courtroom. In D. F. Bjorklund (Ed.), "False memory creation in children and adults" (pp. 93-127). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.